From the perspective of anthropology, smell and perfume play a key role in the connection between human beings and gods. In many cultures, people consume animals and plants, ingest, digest, and then excrete waste, destined to fight against the odors produced by their bodies, while the gods feed on the fragrance of sacrifice and the pleasant fragrance ignited by worship. An enticing odor or even a unique symbol of divinity: The ancient Greeks believed that euodia (meaning "pleasant odor") indicated the manifestation of God. In the imagination of Christians, this is also true. In the New Testament of the Bible, Christ stands out due to his beautiful aroma; In Islamic faith, Anas mentioned Muhammad and said, "I have never smelled the fragrance of ambergris, musk, or any other fragrance that is more delightful than the sweat of a prophet."

Therefore, in human imagination, incense first and foremost possesses divinity. In the secular environment, ordinary people inherit a key characteristic unique to gods - fragrance. Therefore, no matter under what circumstances one experiences fragrance, it remains a magical thing endowed with special powers. This power is the power of communication: it establishes connections between two types of beings - gods and humans or humans and humans. In terms of transformation, incense also exerts its divine power: they nourish, protect, and beautify us.

Today, perfume marketing still faithfully reflects these two forces - perfume has become a panacea for a long time, making two strangers feel irresistible attraction to each other (the power of communication). In a more modern sense, perfume is a cause of liberation. In Lancome's "Beautiful Life" perfume advertisement, it opens Julia Roberts' horizon and sees through the world's hypocrisy; Perfume also has a mysterious force. In Dior's "wilderness" men's perfume advertisement, Johnny Depp is guided to find the way to freedom in the barren land. Thousands of years of history have made it a cultural carrier, and its significance far exceeds the simple goal of making users smell good. Behind the purchase of each bottle of perfume, there are fascinating and profound issues. These issues, based on moral norms or pleasure psychology, integrate virtue and vice, secular and sacred, vulgar and refined.

Fragrance was once considered a sacred thing, associated with gods and spirits

The earliest use of incense was intertwined with the birth of humanity. Since the Paleolithic era, hunters and gatherers have lit fragrant wood and resin to worship the gods, and the rising smoke brings prayers to the ears of the gods. The etymology of the word "per fume" proves the importance of this practice: in Latin, "per fumum" means "by smoke". Fragrance, once most commonly used as a base carrier with vegetable oil or animal fat, can also be applied to the skin.

In ancient Egypt, incense was a sacred thing made by priests in temples. Fragrance recipes were found on the walls of the "laboratory" inside temples during the Ptolemaic dynasty, such as the Temple of Edf. The magical power of incense also makes it an invaluable treasure to help people resist diseases. As stated in the works of Dioscorides and Galen, Greece and Rome discovered therapeutic uses of incense, such as for treating headaches or gynecological diseases. The quantity of this type of medical incense significantly increased in the Roman generation.

In a world without soap, fragrant oils that can dissolve dirt are mainly used for bathing and hygiene. The aromatic oil is stored in a flat spherical ceramic jar (aryballos) for easy access and application. Apply fragrant oil to the body and use a body scraper to scrape it clean before rinsing with clean water. This type of device is commonly found in Greek baths, which promoted the concept of collective public baths in the 5th century BC. In a circular room called "tholos", there are approximately 20 "bathrooms" - independent stone armchairs for bathers to sit on, arranged in a circle around a pool. Some bathhouses may have two circular spaces, as well as steam rooms, bathtubs, changing rooms, massage rooms, etc. This collective bathing eventually evolved into the hot springs of the Roman Empire, adding hot, warm, and cold rooms, swimming pools, sports areas, and cultural facilities (such as auditoriums and libraries) that could accommodate thousands of bathers.

In the fragrance formula, Pliny the Elder clearly distinguishes between sucus and corpus, meaning aromatic substances and solvent substrates, respectively. The substrates are usually vegetable oils (such as Moringa oil made from Moringa seeds, or oils made from bitter almonds, olives, sesame, or poppies). Most of the aromatic ingredients used in Greece and Rome are flowers and resin, which are usually soaked in oil. Among them are locally produced roses, coriander, lilies, narcissus, iris roots, and lavender, as well as various imported spices, including liquid cloves (from Caria and Chirikia), laudanum resin (from Cyprus), white rosin, tragacanth gum and balm (from Judea), frankincense and myrrh (from Arabia), cinnamon, sweet pine, and Ceylon cinnamon (from India). Nowadays, the skill of a perfumer is limited to creating recipes, which involves mixing prepared ingredients. However, until the end of the 19th century, perfumers also undertook a large amount of work in the preparation of aromatic raw materials; In the Middle Ages and earlier, the responsibility of a perfumer also included the preparation of base oils in flavoring formulas.

The use of medieval incense was mainly limited to the prevention and treatment of diseases

The emergence of Christianity in Europe has brought about a revolutionary change in the mainstream concept of incense. Ancient religions did not condemn the secular use of incense, whether for aesthetic pleasure or for the purpose of temptation. But in Christian tradition, Mary Magdalene offered ointment at the heel of Jesus, which decisively solidified the use of incense for religious purposes and was the only morally correct usage. Any other use, especially for temptation, is considered blasphemy. In addition, until the publication of Louis Pasteur's research in the late 19th century, people firmly believed that unpleasant odors could bring disease, while beautiful odors could resist disease. Due to both religious and cultural reasons, the use of incense in the Western Christian world is mainly limited to the prevention and treatment of diseases. This does not mean that incense was not used for temptation during this period, but rather that it has a corrupt moral and provocative side.

In the Middle Ages, the monastery planted aromatic plants and produced medicinal perfume, namely "miracle water". Although distillation has been used to treat certain aromatic plants since ancient times, it was not until the 8th century that the Arab world first used a still. At the end of the 13th century, the process of distilling fermented products emerged in Salerno, southern Italy, making it possible to produce ethanol (also known as alcohol). With the distiller, a new type of perfume was born. This perfume is based on alcohol. At that time, the most popular products were alcohol solutions of aromatic plants, with rosemary and thyme being the most commonly used aromatic plants because their antibacterial properties helped enhance the ability of alcohol to cure ailments and resist diseases. In 1500, the Liber de Arte Distilllandi de Simplicibus (a concise manual on distillation) by Jeronimus Brunswick was published. This book provides a detailed display of the different components and distillation techniques of distillates, and lists 305 animal and plant distillates and their therapeutic properties. Except for the unique case of rosemary, the book does not distinguish between floral water and essential oils, nor does it mention any separation process. Nevertheless, the book still showcases the significant progress that distiller processes have brought to the preparation of aromatic products.

For the nobility and relatively wealthy middle class, bathing is done at home. Whether for ceremonial cleaning purposes, especially before weddings or at night after birth, or to enjoy the pleasure and many benefits brought by water, as well as hygiene considerations, bathing is usually completed in bathtubs made of stone or metal or wooden bathtubs with fabric lining. Sometimes, fragrant herbaceous plants are also soaked in the water used for bathing. Based on the family background and health status of the bather, bathing may be carried out simultaneously with meals, music and entertainment, making bathing an important moment of enjoyment. And public baths are associated with certain unethical customs: of course, people will bathe and dine in the baths, but this place is also a private place for lovers to make friends with. The church strongly condemns the use of the bathhouse and struggles to close it.

In the 16th century, with the rapid spread of the terrible plague throughout Europe, public baths were closed and private bathing was greatly reduced. At the same time, people began to believe that water entering the body would cause inflammation and lead to diseases. Therefore, therapeutic bathing is only used to restore potential fluid imbalances. However, maintaining daily hygiene mainly relies on "dry cleaning", which includes using scented fabrics to wipe the skin and changing clothes. The standard of cleanliness has shifted to a purely visual level. To demonstrate good self-care, people will display clothes that have been cleaned spotlessly, showing off the pristine whiteness of necklines, cuffs, and ruffled collars.

During the Renaissance, people believed that emitting unpleasant odors was a sign of illness. In order to block miasma, people wear a fragrant ball (from Pomme d'ambre in French, meaning "amber apple") containing different herbal spices to build an olfactory barrier. In the 17th century, fragrant balls were replaced by other containers, such as portable sachets, but the aroma contained in them still retained the same preventive effect. These sachets typically contain a strong animal odor: a recipe from 1693 is included in the work of perfumer Simon Barbe, which includes 2 grams of musk, 1 gram of civet oil, and 4 drops of Peruvian balm. Similarly, during times of plague, doctors wear large coats to block the infiltration of harmful air, gloves, and long mouthed masks filled with herbal fragrance to block toxic and foul smelling gases from the body.

Driven by philosophers during the Enlightenment and the theory of "miasma" disease, people began to develop a new interest in nature, and in the 18th century, people began to use water again to clean themselves. The basic grooming habits still focus on appearance: people show off their well groomed face and hair generously, but in contrast, bathing in specific areas of the body remains private. Sitting baths appeared in the homes of nobles on the eve of 1730, with the aim of eliminating unpleasant odors emanating from sweating in the "private parts" of the body. This was the first step towards a new hygiene craze that began in the 19th century.

In the 19th century, the understanding of fragrance returned to the dimension of pure hedonism

In this century of frequent revolutions, public policy strives to control the working class, as they are seen as the most dangerous; Health care has been extended to the majority of the population: specialized bathing facilities have been established in urban areas, and schools and the military teach hygiene. Abolishing the privileged class made upper class society no longer unattainable, and men's clothing was mainly black suits. In such a social environment, all details of personal clothing became increasingly important, and cleanliness became the main basis for distinguishing social classes. Soap is a key item for cleanliness and hygiene, affordable even for the poorest population, and is used as an important medium for imparting fragrance to the body. Other personal care products include cologne and lavender water, toilet vinegar, lotion, hair oil, hair wax, perfume powder, etc. People will pour a small amount of eau de toilette into the bath water, while the richest people will sprinkle a few drops of essence with higher concentration on their handkerchiefs to add fragrance to themselves.

In the last 25 years of the 19th century, Louis Pasteur's bacterial theory spread widely, gradually eliminating the erroneous connection between unpleasant odors and pathogens in collective cognition. Since then, the understanding of fragrance has returned to a purely hedonic dimension: beauty products add pleasant aromas, but their fragrance itself does not help resist diseases. Therefore, fragrance only signifies cleanliness to a limited extent. In addition, if the fragrance is too rich and fragrant, it becomes a means of temptation, implying questionable moral standards. The boundary between whether the use of incense conforms to or violates public order and good customs is entirely subjective and depends on the social status of the user.

The most famous perfume houses in this period include Pivy (founded in 1774), Hobbie Garnt (founded in 1775), Violet (founded in 1827), Guerlain (founded in 1828), Pinot and Mayer (founded in 1830) and Miyo (founded in 1860). Natural raw materials are indispensable ingredients in the products of these perfume houses. They are supplied by the same old workshops in Grass, such as Chiris (founded in 1768), Lautier Fils (founded in 1795), Roure Bertrand (founded in 1820), Robert et Cie (founded in 1850), and so on.

Since the 1880s, new treatment processes for aromatic plants have emerged, especially the volatile solvent extraction method. These new processes can extract more diverse natural ingredients, expanding the creative possibilities of perfumers. In addition, there were also synthetic molecules that first appeared: coumarin (first introduced in 1868), vanillin (first introduced in 1874), artificial musk (first introduced in 1888), and ionones (first introduced in 1893).

Although most of these molecules exist in their natural state, this is the first time that they have been obtained through chemical reactions with other compounds, rather than being extracted from plants. This is revolutionary for perfume formulation. These molecules are supplied by professional production companies: Haarmann&Reimer in Holzminden, Germany (founded in 1874), Fabriques de Laire in Isiremolino, France (founded in 1876), Givaudan in Verne, Switzerland (founded in 1895), Chuit&Naef in Geneva, Switzerland (founded in 1895), and É tables Justin Dupont in Agente, France (founded in 1895). NT, founded in 1902).

Due to the difficulty in using synthetic products, companies quickly mixed them with other raw materials and sold them in the form of a "base", which is more convenient for blending. The Ambre 83, launched by De Lair Manufacturing Company (now known as Dexin ①), is a mixed formula containing vanillin, while the Mousse de Saxe (Saxon moss) uses isobutyl quinoline. Xu Yi and Nafu (now Fenmeiyi) produce "Diantine" containing eugenol and "Irilia" containing vanillin. Since 1905, Marius Le Boer has blended fragrances such as "Muguet 16" (Lilac of the Rings 16) and "Lilas VII" (Lilac VII) in Chihuarton. Although it was not intended to be sold in the form of this compound formula at the beginning, these fragrance based products were widely used in perfume formulas, which has greatly influenced the style of perfume since then.

These raw materials have been introduced into the industry out of the nature, opening the possibility of creativity, and giving birth to new and more abstract perfume fragrance types: Orientals and Fuqi

(foug è res). In the oriental flavor type, the vanilla or balsam tone and the fragrant lemon in the top note balance each other; The Fuqi fragrance is based on the harmony of lavender, geranium, and coumarin, and was first used in the Royal Fuqi launched by Hobbit in 1882 and the Jiqi launched by Guerlain in 1889.

The modernization of perfume raw material industry has greatly accelerated the production of perfume. Due to the relatively low cost of obtaining patents for synthetic products once they entered the public domain, perfumers in the late 19th century were able to mix very affordable products according to their own preferences and expand the market to lower customer groups. Therefore, perfumers can choose a specific sales network for this purpose: in the late 1870s, department stores opened perfume counters, and stores that only sold fragrance products began to appear in the city, that is, "bazars de parfumerie". On the contrary, in order to make high prices reasonable, those perfumers who position themselves at the top end of the market must build a luxury image in the eyes of customers: they reduce the product series to make the product positioning clearer, perfume bottles become eye-catching and artistic, and the boutiques of perfumers become a place to show their brand charm.

Roaring 1920s and post-war years

The most significant sign of the 1920s was the entry of senior fashion designers into the perfume market. Paul Poiret took the lead in launching the perfume brand Rosina Fragrance in 1911. He chose to use his daughter's name as the brand name, but in fact, he made a marketing mistake and failed to fully leverage his reputation as a high-end fashion designer and establish a brand image associated with it. At that time, the industry placed particular emphasis on visual communication, and perfumers had to face the unfavorable situation caused by a lack of brand image. At the same time, high-end fashion designers have a huge advantage in this regard, as they launch clothing collections multiple times a year and have a clear image in the eyes of consumers. Ten years later, when Gabrielle Chanel launched "No. 5", she witnessed this with her own eyes.

Under the guidance of Chanel, several high-end fashion houses enthusiastically devoted themselves to the perfume industry, resulting in a number of still classic works: after Jean Badu released the "love", "what do I know?" and "farewell to reason" (1925), which represent the three stages of love, Henry Almera, the fragrance maker, created "Joy" in 1930. The fragrant and plump combination of rose and jasmine was said to be the most expensive formula in the world at that time, and its appearance was like an ode, singing the joy of fighting the financial crisis. In 1923, Mrs. Zede created a series of perfume for Jenny Langfan. In 1927, Langfan got creative and hired Andre Freis and Paul Wascher to make a formaldehyde fragrance perfume to celebrate the 30th birthday of her daughter, opera singer Mary Blanch de Polyyak. The pink fragrance of this perfume stirred up elegance and poetry in the air, which is called "arpeggio".

In the new competition, the famous perfume house still stands. Founded in 1828, Guerlain was one of the most well-known brands of the 19th century, and during this period, it still accumulated a good reputation: Jacques Guerlain created many masterpieces at the division level, such as "After the Shower" (1906), "Blue Time" (1912), "Madame Butterfly" (1919), and "One Thousand and One Nights" (1925). Karan and Cotty were both founded in 1904 and are behind the scenes contributors to several important works. Ernest Dartrove, the founder of Karang, and Felicy Vanpuye, the art director, jointly created several popular perfume, such as "Black Narcissus" (1911), "Golden Tobacco" (1919) and "Christmas Eve" (1922). Fran ç ois Coty, who had been trained in Glashili, rose to become the leader of a perfume empire after only a few years. "Origano" (1905), "Gufa Amber" (1905) and "Xipu" (1917) are all landmark works of Coty's brand. With its great success, Xipu has established a prototype structure of a fragrance family. The origin of this fragrance can be traced back to ancient times, with patchouli and/or oak moss as the keynote, jasmine and rose as the center, and fragrant lemon as the top note. Sepp paved the way for a series of subsequent works, such as Guerlain's "Madame Butterfly" (perfumer Jacques Guerlain, 1919), Mio's "Chinese Crepe" (perfumer Jean de Prey, 1925), and Rosa's "Ms. Rosa" (Edmund Laudenitska, 1944).

During the Second World War, most French perfume houses were severely damaged. Guerlain's factory in the suburbs of Paris, in Bouvet Cologne, was bombed in 1943 and it was not until 1947 that work was fully resumed in the neighboring city of Courboux. Ernest Daltrove, the Jewish founder of Karan, went to the United States as a refugee in 1939 and barely escaped the plunder of German military authorities during the French occupation. But immediately after the end of the war, the perfume industry ushered in a period of comprehensive revival from the commercial and olfactory levels.

The past six years have suppressed the entrepreneurial spirit of a generation, and it is also this generation that has contributed to the emergence of numerous new fashion houses like mushrooms after the war. But for these brands, it seems crucial to immediately extend their business scope to perfume: on February 12, 1947, Dior also released "Miss Dior" (Jean Carlyle and Paul Vacher) on the first day of the fashion series, which is a green western style perfume, embellishing the main flavor with bright white rosin. Pierre Balman's fashion house was established in 1945. The following year, the "Champs - É lys é es 64.83" (Germina Salier) was launched, named after the phone number of Balman's headquarters; In 1947, "Green Wind" (Germena Salier) was introduced again. Kaffen released "My Style" (Jean Calais, 1946) to follow up.

A few years later, Givenchy (founded in 1952) also released the perfume originally created for Audrey Hepburn - "Taboo" (Francis Fabron, 1957). For the fashion houses founded before the war but not invested heavily in perfume, the situation has also changed. Rosa released three perfume in 1936, but none of them were widely sold; The "Ms. Rosa" created in 1944 is aimed at a broader audience. This perfume shows a deep and sexy temperament with caramel plum and spicy fragrance, and is widely popular. Liana Lizi, founded in 1932, also followed suit. The "Heart of Joy" (Germena Salier) released in 1946 is a perfume that means to rediscover freedom; The floral structure of "Flying Together" (Francis Fabron, 1948) revolves around a pinkish and delicate aroma of carnation, enveloped layer by layer, as warm as sunlight, celebrating the return of the world to peace and tranquility with its fragrance.

In the creation of perfume, fashion companies face the problem of formula. The Wertheimer brothers own two brand companies, Wonderful Paris and Chanel perfume. Chanel perfume hired the perfumer Ennis Bow in 1924. But not all brands can have dedicated perfumers to serve them. In most cases, they turn to raw material suppliers: Edmund Laudenitska from De Laer Manufacturing Company prepared "Ms. Rosa" for Rosa; Ruhr Bertrand and the perfumers of Justan DuPont, Jean Carlyle, Germena Salier and Francis Fabron, respectively, dispensed perfume for Liana Lizi, Rob Berger, Dior, Pierre Barman, Kafen and Givenchy and other brands.

These raw material enterprises, which were originally good at making perfumes, gradually adjusted their business and began to make perfume for fashion houses for sale under their own brands. R é rmena Sailier from Ruhr Company is a woman with a strong personality, who builds her own fragrance style based on high-dose and simplified formulas. Her confident creative choices have supported some bold formulas, including Balman's "green wind", which symbolizes the fun of life and contains 8% white rosin, the rugged and energetic leather fragrance "bandit" (Robert Berger brand, launched in 1944) and the fragrant evening jasmine perfume "noise" (Robert Berger brand, launched in 1948). In order to cater to the new trend of aromatherapy homework, Jean Calais proposed a teaching method still named after him to this day. In 1946, Roure Perfume School was born, creating a new model for shaping the industry. Later, all other formula companies followed this model, including Fanmi and Chihuadon, which were founded in 1895, and International essence&Fragrances (IFF), which was later formed by the joint venture of Polak and Schwarz and the merger of Van Ameringen Haebler in 1958. Today, these organizations are the largest spice suppliers in the world market, with the largest number of perfumers.